Ronald Reagan s President Of The United States - 1166 Words

Within the past 30 plus years, there have been three main things that either have or still currently impact our society and generation in America as a whole; Modern Day Immigration, the concept of â€Å"Reaganomics†, and the terrorist attacks that occurred on September 11th, 2001 (also known as 9/11). For a variety of reasons, these things have turned into either political, economic, or societal issues (or often times a combination of the three). Over the years, these things have helped shape society into what we know and see it as today, for better or worse. One of the big aspects of Ronald Reagan’s tenure as President of the United States was his economic plan to combat inflation with the concept of Supply Side Economics (Brands, ch 31.5),†¦show more content†¦This would supposedly result in an economic boom that would result in more income for both the higher and lower class that would offset the rise of inflation. However, these tax cuts lead to record fede ral budget deficits, which also resulted in cutting funds from various social services and programs. While these deficits and social program cuts occurred, the national unemployment also rose to record highs, and the gap between working and upper classes only increased. To an extent, the large gap between economic classes still exists today, as the average income for those residing in the top 1% has risen astronomically (lecture topic 14b). It was also around this time that big chain companies such as Wal-Mart and McDonalds rose to prominence. In contrast to the original intent of Reagan’s plan, the heads of these large companies (i.e. most of the people residing at the top of the upper class economically) kept their extra money instead of using it to improve working conditions for their employees. This resulted in outsourcing jobs, expanding locations to different countries outside the U.S., and the lowering of workplace standards (Klein p. 236-237). Today, many of these pr actices are still in place, with numerous politicians still pushing a similar agenda of tax cuts for big corporations (many of which support said politicians). On the morning of September 11th, 2001, Islamic terrorists

How Communication Can Be Positive Or Negative, Effective...

Introduction Communication is the sending of information from one person to another. The communication that parents have and teach their children is important because it is essential for an everyday life. Parents who are teaching their children good communication skills are teaching future adults effective communication skills. Communication can be verbal, such as, one person talking to another, or it can be non-verbal, and such as, a scowl on a person s face that will probably let other people know he is angry. Communication can be positive or negative, effective or ineffective. (Zolten, Kristen) â€Å"Children learn attitudes, values, and behaviors, as well as gain knowledge, through communicating with others - the most important of whom are their parents. Communication between parent and child begins the day the child is born, or earlier, and continues as the child grows, matures and changes† (Children and Families: Parenting Issues: Communicating with Our Children). For this paper I will be analyzing three pieces of literature. The first being a website, Child Development Institute website: Successful Two-Way Communication with Your Child by Robert Myers. The second being a Magazine article, 7 Powerful Tips for Great Parent-Child Communication published on TIME Magazine, by Dr. Ron Taffel. The last piece of literature, a peer-reviewed scholarly journal article, Raising Competent Kids: The Authoritative Parenting Style, by Jeanne Ballantine. I will be reviewing these piecesShow MoreRelatedDemonstrative Communication Essay925 Words   |  4 PagesDemonstrative Communication XXXXXX XXXXXXX BCOM/275 January 16, 2013 Provide examples showing how demonstrative communication can be effective and ineffective, positive and negative, for the sender and receiver. Demonstrative Communication is the process of people’s thoughts and messages of communicating by actively listening in verbal and nonverbal communication. 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It also includes unwritten communication, which is to speak and includes actual words, intended and inferred meanings, time and place, vocal inflection and. tone. These signs of communication depending on how perceived by the receiver from the sender can be positive or negative, effective or ineffective. The demonstrativeRead MoreThe Basic Three Functions Of Communication1566 Words   |  7 Pages OB Final Exam 1. Communications fulfils three main functions within an organization, name them and explain their impact from an effective and ineffective perspective. The basic three functions of communication in organization are to inform, persuade, and motivate. Inform The idea of informing within an organization is to provide data and information so that employees can effectively complete their job. There are three ways through which information can travel: Downward moving information: InRead MoreDemonstrative1586 Words   |  7 PagesDemonstrative Communication Paper. Karena Busch BCOM/275 July 9th, 2012 Wayne Brock Communication is a form of passing information from one person to the next and from one place to another by acknowledging the sender’s intent, comprehending the context of the message, and acting upon it to be able to create a shared understanding! Communication starts with the sender, who must format the message clearly and correctly, by using proper grammar, punctuation, noun sequencing, and syntax. ThisRead MoreWhat Makes An Athlete Successful? Essay1360 Words   |  6 PagesWhat makes an athlete successful? Most would say it is the dedication an athlete has to their sport, or their physical ability and talent, but what most people don’t think of is the communication that the athlete has been surrounded by while playing their game. Interpersonal communication in sport plays a large role in the success of an athlete, and the impact of it starts as soon as we get involved in sport. For some of us that involvement begins when we are toddlers, and for others it may comeRead MoreHello Kitty Essay examples658 Words   |  3 Pages050-word paper describing demonstrative communication. Demonstrative communication includes nonverbal and unwritten communication and involves such things as facial expressions, tone of voice, b ody language, and so forth. Include the following elements in your paper: Provide examples showing how demonstrative communication can be effective and ineffective, positive and negative, for the sender and receiver. * Explain how demonstrative communication involves listening and responding.

Equality is Constitutional free essay sample

Equality is ConstitutionalFreedom has never been categorized into a fixed concept. Rather, it has been the subject of constant conflict in the history of the United States of America. The history of freedom in the United States of America is a narrative of long debates, disagreements, and struggles other than a set of timeless categories or an evolutionary narrative towards a common preordained goal. (Pg. 437) The plight of freedom and equality in the American society has been relevant at all levels of the social order; not only in congressional debates and political parties but in the day-to-day lives of the American people. Civil Rights are the freedoms that any and every person should have regardless of her or his sexual orientation, ethnicity, and or religious affiliations. In 1950s the civil rights movement was primarily focuses on ratifying racial inequalities nation wide for people of color. (Pg. 437) Over fifty years after Martin Luther King, Jrs legendary march on Washington, the civil rights movement has since then shifted. The original issues that the civil rights movement fought against has shifted from the public eye while same sex marriage and immigration reconstruction has the leading edge. The 14th Amendment was added to the Constitution in 1868, this amendment granted, All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. (Pg.438) (The Constitution of the United States, Amendment 14.)Not long after in 1870, the 15th Amendment was added to the Constitution enabling African American citizens the †¦right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. (Pg. 438)(The Constitution of the United States, Amendment 15.)Still, many white Americans who mostly resided in the South, remained displeased that people they once owned as slaves were now on an equal playing field. In order to further post pone the progress recently made, Jim Crow (Jim Crow was a derogatory term for a black person.) laws were established in the South beginning in the late 19th century. (Pg.439) Once the Supreme Court took the teeth out of the Civil Rights Act of 1875, such laws proliferated. They required blacks to live in separate (generally inferior) areas and restricted them to (sic) separation. (Pg.439) These laws prohibited African Americans from using the same public lavatories, living in many of the same cities or go to the same schools as white Americans. These laws were implemented as an alternative route to erase the civil reconstruction that was previously made. Conversely, Jim Crow laws werent adopted in northern states; nonetheless, African American citizens still experienced intense discrimination at jobs or when they tried to buy homes. (Pg.437-439) These events helped set the stage to start the initiative to enact change on racial equality legislation and progression of the civil rights movement. The civil rights movement was a battle against social injustice and equality for all people including people of color in the United States of America that took place during the 1950s and 1960s. At the end of the Civil war slavery had already been abolished, but it did not end discrimination against people of color. Furthermore, during the civil rights movement they continued to tolerate the traumatic effects of racism, mostly taking place in the southern states. Around the middle of the 20th century, African Americans had experienced more than enough of racial injustice and unnecessary violent acts against them. Martin Luther king Jr. was the leading figure and key symbol of the civil rights movement in the United States. (Pg.439) However it was powered and hard-pressed by the loyalty and commitment of great numbers of people, of all races and from many different walks of life. The African American community took a stand and rallied behind Rosa Parks in response to her notorious arrest by boycotting the citys metropolitan bus system. (Pg.443-444) A boycott is the refusal to do business with a firm, individual, or nation as an expression of disapproval or as a means of coercion. (Pg.443) Just one year after the boycott began, the federal courts came to the conclusion that the southern segregated transportation systems violated the equal protection clause of the Constitution. After all his success in the Rosa Parks case, Martin Luther King, Jr., organized a group of activists to help organize the southern civil rights movement. Martin Luther King Jr. was whole-heartedly vowed to a nonviolent course of action to bring racial injustices to the forefront. He also advocated civil disobedience to all of his followers, ensuring them that non-violence is the preeminent way to combat laws that are regarded as unjust. (Pg.443) When the U.S. Supreme Court handed down its decision in the 1954 case Plessy Vs. Ferguson, (Pg. 440) the impact was felt across the United States of America. This was more than just a document written in the complexities of legal language, but the ruling was the match that sparked a pivotal movement in society: the civil rights movement. In Plessy Vs. Ferguson, the court decided that the separate but equal doctrine was inherently unequal; it violated the 14th Amendments promise of equal protection of the laws.(Pg. 440) Another pivotal issue was the public school systems, some of which made a permanent practice of separating black students from white students. They were officially required to desegregate after the notorious Brown v. Board of Education trial. This case was the culmination of twenty years of planning and litigation by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) to invalidate racial segregation in public schools. (Pg.441) This inspired citizens around the nation to rally against all forms of institutionalized racial discrimination from voting rights and to furthermore push for the quest of equal rights. In 1964, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 legislation initiated by President John F. Kennedy. (Pg.444-445) Martin Luther King Jr. and other civil rights activists witnessed the signing. That new law gave the guarantee that equal employment was for all, limited the use of voter literacy tests to hinder applicants, and allowed federal authorities to ensure public facilities were integrated. The civil rights movement has come a long way since the Civil Rights Act of 1964. (Pg. 444-445) As of currently segregation is no longer the forefront of the civil rights movement. The movement has shifted to many new issues along with the original motive of striving for complete equality for all. American citizens support the equality of opportunity or equal opportunity. (Pg.453) Equality of opportunity is the simplistic idea that each person is guaranteed the same chance to succeed in life as any other. People should have an equal chance to develop their talents and that effort and ability should be rewarded equitably. This form of equality glorifies personal achievement and free competition, and it allows everyone to play on a level field where the same rules apply to all. (Pg.453-454) Special recruitment efforts aimed at identifying qualified minority or female job applicants, for example, ensuring that everyone has the same chances starting out in life. Among the most controversial civil rights issues today is affirmative action. (Pg. 454) Affirmative action is defined in the American context as the effort to redress previous discrimination against women, and minorities through active measures to promote their employment and educational opportunities. (Pg. 453-455) The rationale behind affirmative action is a great opportunity for the American society to attempt to right its previous wrongs but some would argue that it gives free rides to a life of success for people of color. (Pg. 453) However, this is not the case; African American prejudice alone before GPAs and socioeconomic status come into play. Civil rights laws made it illegal to prohibit any students admittance to any school because of his or her race, sexual orientation, or religion. Nonetheless, in many parts of the country, schools are still segregated, if not intentional then by circumstance alone. (Pg.455) Since people of color and whites still often live in different areas and they often learn in different areas as well. Affirmative action requires schools to accept more people from different backgrounds which gives people of color opportunities to work, and or learn in a professional field that there fore fathers may not have had the opportunity to do so themselves. So just by merely allowing social processes, such as admissions to colleges or the awarding of government contracts, to operate normally perpetuates inequalities and the discrimination that underlies them. (Pg. 453-455)Civil Rights are the freedoms that any and every person should have regardless of her or his sexual orientation, ethnicity, and or religious affiliations. (Pg. 429) Rights usually signify protections that the government must provide. The United States of America has come a very long way since the Jim Crow days, and even though thee laws are in place, we have yet to come to a resolution for racism in the American society. Many schools are filled with not only black and students but also students form different countries, but as time has gone by many are more segregated than they were thirty years ago. Nearly fifty years after the March on Washington, there are persistent gaps that remain between people of color and whites. Poverty, unemployment, voting rights and racial disparities in education are still relevant issues today, as they were for those who marched for freedom and equality in 1963. (Pg. 457-458) Today, racial tensions have escalated to a boiling point similar to the way it did in the first civil rights movement. Fighting against old and newfound issues such as mass incarceration and LGBTQ rights the American people continue in the fight for equality for all. Equal rights means equality for all, anything less than that is just unconstitutional.

What have been the recent challenges to Steinways value creation Essay Example

What have been the recent challenges to Steinways value creation Essay * Sustaining handcraft skill in piano design The age long competitive advantage for Steinway in its piano design would have to give way to a modern automated system for quick assembly and reduction in lead time. * Threats of close substitutes -such as the electronic keyboard, new design of personal computers etc as a form of entertainment is feared would erode Steinways market share and its perceive value. * Erosion of brand image We will write a custom essay sample on What have been the recent challenges to Steinways value creation specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on What have been the recent challenges to Steinways value creation specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on What have been the recent challenges to Steinways value creation specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The decision within the CBS years (1972-1985) to increase production levels and choice of other methods of marketing through competitor sales distribution outlets opens an opportunity for customers to question Steinways piano quality, uniqueness and perceived brand image. This resulted in declining sales and frequent order cancellations. The used pianos also pose an issue of how Steinway would hold well of its value creation at the customer end1. Relatively, Bostons piano introduction also further eroded Steinways piano; a middle-range product an advance from the traditional offerings. * Competition Strong competition stem from Yamaha and other Asian brand of piano2. These new designs were built on highly automated systems and had quick assembly time than Steinways with a two year manufacturing time. * Customer relations services The competitors are better at rendering a highly valued after sales checks and feedback from their customers than Steinway. There is a track record of begrudged customers who have made official complaints about Steinways service level; an example in the case study is famous pianist Andre Watts who turned to a competitor (Yamaha) purely on this basis. * Ownership Change The frequent acquisitions and ownership change is a great challenge and pproduct quality has become a concern. This would possibly give rise to the problem of continuance of corporate mission. Therefore, its necessary for Steinway to retain its leadership position to fully understand and make attempt to maintain the core competences and brand image for customer retention and loyalty3 What have been the recent challenges to Steinways Value Creation? Competition Main competitors are Yamaha the largest piano manufacturer in the world. Most pianos are vertical units 90% with small grand pianos making up the remaining 10%. Their production is based on highly automated systems resulting in quicker assembly than Steinway, where a grand piano takes 2 years to manufacture. To most users, other than classically trained pianists, Yamaha represents comparable quality to Steinway. After-sales service is also an issue the example in the case study is that of the famous pianist Andre Watts, who defected to Yamaha complaining of a lack of attention and support from Steinway. Brand dilution Steinway is the Rolls-Royce of the piano market. Throughout the CBS years (1972 1985), emphasis was placed on increasing levels of production. Critics began to question the quality of the pianos, and this filtered through to the customer. This ultimately led to a drop in sales and cancelled orders (at one point they had 740 boxed pianos left in stores awaiting shipment)! The release of the Boston piano, in 1992, by the Birmingham Brothers (1985-1995) was a major shift in Steinways brand. This piano is a mid-range product, representing a significant break from tradition.4 Perversely, Steinways quality has become a problem for them. Their pianos are so durable that the market for them is near saturation point. Second-hand units, that hold their value well5, are now competing with sales of new units.

Need for the Sustainable Initiative in the United Arab Emirates

Need for the Sustainable Initiative in the United Arab Emirates Need for the initiative Currently, several stakeholders in the United Arab Emirates are interested in pursuing sustainability but few have implemented any projects to back this interest. In other words, there is no shortage of rhetoric concerning the environment in Dubai. What organisations require is support to turn their sustainability ideas into reality. Kaye (2012) reports that Dubai city is designed in a way that increases energy consumption.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Need for the Sustainable Initiative in the United Arab Emirates specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More For instance, one would need to make several u-turns on a road in order to get to a destination. Additionally, few residents make use of available railways. Emiratis also rarely recycle their waste, reduce their water consumption or utilise solar energy for their power needs. Nonetheless, expatriates and residents alike are aware of their respons ibility towards the environment, and many of them want to do something about it. Several top leaders in Dubai are also showing that a need for sustainable initiatives is necessary. A case in point was the Dubai Integrated Energy Strategy of 2030 supported by the Dubai Supreme Council of Energy. The chairman of this entity, His Excellency Al Tayer, is trying to attract foreign investment in sustainable businesses. Clearly, several stakeholders must step in and support the 2030 vision. Dubai already has a decarbonising initiative managed by the Dubai Carbon Centre for Excellence, and all it requires are partners that can assist in achievement of this goal (Dubai Chronicle 2012). This initiative will be one of the partners. The plan is also needed because businesses stand to save a lot of resources if they participate in it. For instance, they are likely to reduce the materials they and the waste they produce. Furthermore, the amount of oil or water they require for production will red uce, and this will translate into cost savings. Organisations such as BP have saved $650 million as a result of sustainable energy use (Rettab Rahman 2012). Many firms in the UAE are looking for ways of staying in business by cutting costs; environmental sustainability is one way of achieving it. A description of the business and its objectives The main objective of this business is to assist Dubai companies to meet their sustainability agenda. It will do this through four minor objectives: to help companies minimise use of non renewable resources, increase the use of renewable energy, and reduce carbon emissions or other forms of pollution.Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This company will be providing support services to Dubai firms that are interested in being environmentally sustainable. It will offer them advise and resources to integrate and hence reduce th e environmental impact of their suppliers and partners. The initiative will also assist firms to minimise the effect that their transportation costs have on energy use. Aspects such as packaging will also be examined in order to ascertain that they are recycled, reused or redesigned to utilise fewer materials. Clients will also benefit from waste management assistance as well as energy emission reduction. Water management will also be part of the service offerings as companies will learn how to employ best practices in management of their businesses (Neves 2009). Within the office setting, businesses will learn how to reduce paper dependence by going digital and also how to reuse other forms of materials at the workplace. Start-up projects or construction companies will also receive support on building and maintaining green buildings. This will involve a change in consumption behaviour and a serious commitment to matters of environmental sustainability. British legal and organisatio nal structure of the business Since this firm will entail expatriate partners, then the most suitable structure will be a Limited Liability structure. The UAE has severe restrictions’ when it comes to other company structures like partnerships and public companies. Therefore, the most plausible one would be an LLC. This method comes with a series of advantages that range from access to the UAE economy to unlimited profit and loss sharing. The latter issue is quite advantageous because although foreign ownership cannot exceed 49%, profit sharing can be negotiated among the parties so as to account for a greater level of return from certain partners. Furthermore, investors do not have to come up with a certain amount for capital as there is no minimum value. The organisation would also be able to carry out several activities without being restricted. An LLC structure would protect the foreign partner because assets are in the company name and not the Emirati partner’s na me (UAE-EU 2012). The organisational structure will be a flat structure. It will have a managing director who will head a number of departmental managers that include the finance manager, administrative manager, industries and plants manager, construction and green buildings manager, office and equipment manager, and marketing manager.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Need for the Sustainable Initiative in the United Arab Emirates specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More All the above managers will have employees working under them. This structure was selected because it allows for specialisation among the various departments. It also empowers individuals to make decisions and thus find fulfilment in their positions. Marketing plan The four P’s of the marketing plan will revolve around informing business entities about the need for the company’s services. With regard to product, the company is offering a serv ice that does not exist in the present form within the UAE. Most sustainability initiatives only offer a small aspect of environmental service support. This particular business will offer a comprehensive package for all sustainability needs in a company. Marketing will focus on the all-inclusive nature of this service. It will also inform buyers about the relevance or usefulness of sustainability in business. Pricing decisions will also revolve around bundling. The more services a company buys from the initiative, the more discounts they get. Overall, buyers will pay a relatively low price for the product in order to penetrate into the untapped market. After building demand for the services, then prices will be increased gradually. The initiative will also offer a lot of flexibility in pricing so as to build partnerships with organisations (De Stricker 2007). The firm’s offices will be located around key industrial and commercial hubs. This will increase proximity to clients and thus ensure that they do not have to travel long distances to consult with the firm. It will also ascertain that sustainability suppliers are close by in order to minimise logistics and supply chain costs for the company’s clients.Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Advertising will be a key strategy for promotion. This will be done through the internet, key business and daily newspapers as well as posters. On the internet, the firm will target websites that talk about sustainability. It will also place banner ads on key commercial business websites in Dubai. Posters will be located in commercial and industrial hubs and only highly circulating newspapers will be selected for advertisements. The company will also do public relations by sponsoring major events. It will rely on personal selling through marketing representatives in the organisation (Kotler and Lee 2006). References De Stricker, U 2007, ‘My Pleasure to Serve You: Client Service Marketing’, Journal of Feliciter, vol. 53 no. 3, pp. 130-133. Dubai Chronicle 2012, Dubai to reduce carbon dioxide and greenhouse gas emissions, †¹dubaichronicle.com/2012/02/26/dubai-carbon-dioxide-greenhouse-gas-emissions/†º Kaye, L 2012, ‘Can Dubai ever be sustainable?’, The Guardian, 13 March, p. 15. Kotler, P and Lee, N 2006, Marketing in the public sector: A roadmap for improved performance, Wharton School Publishing, Philadelphia. Neves, M 2009, 4 P’s for sustainability planning, †¹chinadaily.com.cn/thinktank/2009-11/27/content_9067182.htm†º Rettab, B Rahman, S 2012, Businesses, catalysts of change in the middle east, †¹dubaichamber.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/Dubai%20Dialogue%20Sustainability%20Matters%20Conference%20Proceedings.pdf †º UAE-EU 2012, Legal structures for Dubai business, †¹uae-eu.com/why-dubai/dubai-legal-business-structure†º

Sugarcoating or Career Sweetener The Values of PHR and SPHR

Sugarcoating or Career Sweetener The Values of PHR and SPHR Human resources is  a great versatile career path to follow. The field has so much potential for job growth and earnings as well as flexibility. As an HR manager, every day you are faced with new challenges so there is no typical work day. If you are looking to further your career in HR and stand out amongst the competition there are several  certifications to look into. The two most popular are PHR and SPHR. The Professional in Human Resources (PHR) and  Senior Professional in Human Resources (SPHR) are great certifications to hold in the field. These certifications help you to stand out amongst your colleagues as well as give you more opportunities for growth to further your  career within the company. The infographic below has many bonuses of getting certified in either PHR or SPHR and the effect it will have in your  developing career.   Let’s just say the increased pay is just the icing on the cake!Source [Pay Scale]

Management accounting Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Management accounting - Essay Example Methods such as standard costing and budgetary control are associated with developments in management accounting - this is thought to have been as a result of the traditional rise of large and multi-divisional business activities. This observation is in line with what Chandler (1977) set out, when he maintained that modern management originated from the economic history. The economic history took the position that was previously taken by market mechanisms by introducing an institution with new features, a modern business enterprise or the managed creature. Essentially, by planning and coordinating of the activities in an organization across space and time, as well as internally capturing efficiency benefits and cost, the managed entity displaced, forestalled, and essentially redesigned market relationships (Coase, 1937). Consequently, management brought about oligopoly since it was possible to create large-scale entities whereby managers manage other managers through the process of a dministrative coordination. The organizations that followed these structures were capable of running economically to the extent of redesigning and dominating their sectors, as well as their staff. In essence, the administrative coordination brought about a new source of power, which has eventually redesigned the limits of the organizational and economic scenes. In view of this, it is evident that Chandler contributed towards an explanation of the origin of the modern management by shedding light on how different forms of administrative coordination were, at the outset, developed (Hoskin and Macve, 1990). Chandler specified the Springfield Armory as the origin of the development of single-unit management, which was allegedly done in the perspective of introducing an interchangeable part manufacturer. In essence, this location could have been an unacceptable source of the management; however, the administrative coordination could not have originated from the reaction from technical in ventions, but it must have originated from a distinct and disciplinary intervention. Ideally, in this case, the administrative coordination was put into practice through coordination, problem planning as well as control of staff and plant throughout the extended moment and space. In addition, another important contributor of the modern management, just as Chandler maintained, is George Whistler who was associated with the Western Railroad. Chandler (1977, p. 97-98) ascertained that Whistler was the first to embrace cautiously defined, modern, and an internal organizational structure, in 1841. This development was the first American business enterprise to function under a formally designed administrative structure, overseen by full-time and paid staff. After Whistler, the Pennsylvania (PRR) was the subsequent key railroad where severance of operating and financial functions was a remarkable development that led to the establishment of a form of organization described by Chandler (197 7) as â€Å"decentralized line-and-staff division.† (p. 105). In addition, the unrelenting examination and production of comprehensive flows of information in both human and physical assets reduced operating cost and enhanced efficiency. According to Chandler (1977) the most momentous contributions to accounting was made by Pennsylvania